The Scientific Method
Helen Keller wrote, “Many persons have a wrong idea of what constitutes true happiness. It is not attained through self-gratification, but through fidelity to a worthy purpose” (1936, December 10). One of the most meaningful ways of pursuing a worthy purpose is to conduct research that expands our knowledge of a subject, solves a problem or dispels prejudice and, ideally, contributes to a change in policy that results in the betterment of society. In an article for The Guardian, Matthew Goodwin’s first of 10 tips for how academics can engage policy-makers states: “Only do it if you believe it is important. Seriously” (2013, March 25). He notes that John Gerring once said that social science should be pursued for the sake of the betterment of society, not for the sake of science alone. Gerring also said that while not every study will be intended for a policy outcome, each academic should give due consideration to what citizens and policymakers care about, or may care about. (cited in Goodwin, 2013, March 25).
We have the fortune of living in a formidable age where so much of our understanding of the world has been arrived at by practicing the scientific method. Another development we should be thankful for is the discovery of statistical probability, which allows us to conduct surveys in order to apply the scientific method to the social sciences as well, and thus expand our knowledge not only about the physical world, but about human interactions as well.
Human interaction is founded on opinions: opinions about the meaning of our actions, the meaning of our interactions, and even the meaning of our existence. As pointed out by Johnson and Christensen in Introduction to Educational Research, among the assumptions made by researchers is that, science “cannot answer philosophical questions such as what the meaning of life is, what virtue is, or what beauty is” (2014, p. 17). Reason can only take us so far. Nevertheless, like the adage says, “never judge a man until you’ve walked a mile in his shoes.” While we may not be able to prove moral truth, our judgements should always be grounded evidence. Our actions should be guided by informed opinion. On a broader scale, that should mean a society that adopts policies guided, at every possible opportunity, by evidenced-based research.
Determinism vs Free-Will
As noted by Robert Bishop, “Thoughtful social scientists, mental health professionals, and students in the social disciplines often confront a particular dilemma concerning determinism and freedom” (2002, p. 425). Determinism in social science and psychology has tended to see human behaviour as responses to some kind of stimuli, usually predicated by certain sociological and physiological preconditions (Oxford Reference, n.d.). Therefore, social determinism is believed to be diametrically opposed to the idea of free-will, which is presumed to depend on the notion of a soul. As inheritors of the traditions of the Enlightenment, which regards all religious ideas as “superstitious,” social scientists tend to treat such ideas as unscientific (Baumeister, 2013, September 25).
However, according Alfred R. Male, , while Neuroscientists tend to view the brain activity as merely chemical and electrical events, “their statements against free will can be misleading and are sometimes downright mistaken, as several thoughtful critics have pointed out” (Chivers, 2010, October 12). In his book Effective Intentions: The Power of Conscious Will (2009), Chivers explains why the data do not justify their arguments.
The dichotomy does not require a religious disposition. To some degree, moral choices are merely logical. If we accept that as humans we are fundamentally identical to our neighbours, then we would expect to share the same fundamental needs and aspirations. Altruism is the logical deduction that others desire what we want for ourselves. Selfishness, on the other hand, is short-sightedness, opting for a short-term gain, necessitating that we rationalize the long-term consequences of our immediate actions on the society or community as a whole. Each person’s decisions are therefore fraught with a choice between altruism and self-interest. Effectively, this is a duality universally recognized throughout human history as good and evil.
Because every human exercises a free choice, we therefore cannot predict how he or she will act. But, we can at least understand the decisions available to him or her. Once we are freed from the need of predicting human behaviour, we can appreciate man’s role as an independent being. For the most part, a human being can be swayed by a rational argument. Unless of course they are defeated by their own internal temptations, and chose otherwise. That we cannot control. But at least we can learn to better define rational arguments to provide motivations for positive behaviour.
Motivation
Such considerations are central to the new opportunities afforded through online education. As indicated by Bozkurt, et al., in Trends in distance education research:
Online learning is no longer peripheral or supplementary, yet an integral part of mainstream society. Our new understanding of the very nature of learning has affected the definition, design, and delivery of education. Paradigm shift in education has resulted in: new modes of educational delivery, new learning domains, new principles of learning, new learning processes and outcomes and new educational roles and entities. (p. 331)
With a growing trend towards self-directed learning, instead of learning managed by teachers and administrators, an on-going concern is how to help students manage themselves. D. R. Garrison’s article, Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model (1997), centers on the recognition that personal motivation is a crucial factor in the transition to self-directed learning, and ultimately, lifelong learning. Garrison cites H.B. Long as expressing amazement at the fact that this psychological dimension has been largely ignored, stating that the “critical dimension in self-directed learning is not the sociological variable, nor is it the pedagogical factor. The main distinction is the psychological variable” (p. 20).
As Garrison points out, several researchers have discovered that the central motivating factor is meaning (p. 19). Garrison concluded:
Intrinsic motivation leads to responsible and continuous learning. If these are the worthy aims of education, it is imperative that we create conditions where students become increasingly motivated by authentic interest and desire to construct personal meaning and shared understanding (worthwhile knowledge) (p. 29).
Given students’ free-will, no particular strategy for enhancing their motivation can be the answer in all situations. Learners will ultimately make up their own minds. “A student’s entering motivational state,” explains Garrison, “results from rational intentions with regard to selecting learning tools” (p. 27). Conventional rewards, however, such as improved job prospects, reputation, or monetary compensation, are typically weak motivators (Judge et al., 2010). Valuable results can only be achieved if the end is recognized by the student or researcher as being meaningful, especially if there is an attached altruistic value of making a worthwhile contribution to the betterment of society. “For example,” explains Garrison, students should be provided, at the very least, with an opportunity to understand why specific objectives are worthwhile, if not to select relevant objectives from among several options, shape approaches, and select appropriate learning tasks” (p. 29).
Lifelong Learners
According to Garrison, “In terms of long range educational goals, self-directed learning is also a necessity if students are to learn how to learn and become continuous learners” (p. 29). To encourage students, it is therefore necessary to elucidate not only the value of scholarly research, but also the multitudinous topics than can be expanded upon, and most importantly, the personal gratification than can be derived from a sense of having made a positive contribution to the world. There are two aspects to learning. First there is learning to become informed about the existing state of knowledge of a variety of subjects, or to learn how to perform according to established norms and standards. Secondly, there is academic learning, leading to research and critical thinking towards expanding on accepted knowledge.
eLearning facilitates both types of learning. The first is vocational learning or learning a trade. The second is educating students to become scholars or researchers. The two need not be mutually exclusive. And, ultimately, it is in expanding our knowledge that we contribute to innovation, which in turn contributes to new commercial and career opportunities. Where once career was the goal for education, the new paradigm must be learning first, which is to be recognized as contributing to a career that is continuously transformed as a result of that learning. For that, the motivating goal must also be expanding knowledge, to make an improvement for the betterment of society—the only genuine motivator.
References
Baumeister, Roy F. (2013, September 25). Do You Really Have Free Will? Salon.
Bishop, Robert. (2002). Rethinking Determinism in Social Science. Between Chance and Choice: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Determinism. Editors: Harald Atmanspacher, Robert C Bishop. Imprint Academic.
Chivers, Tom (2010, October 12). Neuroscience, free will and determinism: ‘I’m just a machine’. The Telegraph.
Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18-33.
Goodwin, Matthew (2013, March 25. How academics can engage with policy: 10 tips for a better conversation. The Guardian.
Johnson, R.B., Christensen, L. (2014). Introduction to Educational Research. In Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. (p. 2-28). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Judge, Timothy A., Piccolo, Ronald F., Podsakoff, Nathan P., Shaw, John C., Rich, Bruce L. (2010). The relationship between pay and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 157–167.
Male, Alfred R. (2012, March 18). The Case Against the Case Against Free Will. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
Keller, Helen (1936, December 10), Helen Keller’s Journal, 1936-1937, 1938. Cited in Random House Webster’s Quotationary (2001). Editor Leonard Roy Frank. New York, NY: Random House. Section: Happiness, p. 344
Oxford Reference (n.d.). Social Determinism.