Category: LRNT 522

by Jessica Gemella, Heather de Lange, Terry Kent, and Nicole Croft

Introduction

The three theoretical frameworks discussed below include community of inquiry (CoI), personality theory, and adult learning theory. A plethora of research underpins the use and validity of each framework by highlighting the connection between theory and practice, particularly in the field of learning and technology. Personality theory assists educators in understanding how to best support diverse personality traits and learning styles when developing engaging online pedagogies. Indicators of increased performance, retention rates and student perceptions are examples used to measure and predict learner outcomes. Secondly, CoI, or Community of Practice (CoP) identifies the interdependent relationship between social presence, cognitive presence and teaching presence. This collaborative-constructionist framework highlights both the relationship and dependencies each presence has to one another, allowing meaningful reflection and the development of supportive practices leading to increased learner engagement. Lastly, adult learning theory, also known as andragogy, outlines practical and relational attributes that contribute to the success of higher education learning and goals. Motivation, experience, and individual goals are examples of factors used to study adult learning theory, with substantial weight denoted to real-world issues. Though there are major benefits to pedagogies that consider the many theoretical frameworks available, it is good practice to appreciate the different use cases, limitations and implications of each framework concerning learning and technology especially when it comes to online, asynchronous education.

Annotated Bibliography

* denotes secondary research

*** indicates primary and secondary research

Community of Inquiry (CoI); Community of Practice (CoP)

*Cousin, G. & Deepwell, F. (2005). Designs for network learning: A communities of practice perspective. Studies in Higher Education, 30(1), 57-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/0307507052000307795 

Cousin and Deepwell’s article has set out to illustrate the implications of Wenger’s communal learning (Community of Practice, CoP) in the design of networked learning environments (NLE) and networked learning. Initially, Cousin and Deepwell discuss at length the various aspects of Wenger’s CoP, including Wegner’s notion that participation, identity, and community, are requirements for learning. Next, they discussed Wegner’s three aspects of CoP (mutual engagement, joint enterprise, shared repertoire), focusing on some challenges shared repertoires may pose for NLEs. Cousin and Deepwell also explored Wenger’s discussions on participation and reification, stating that participation and production are critical aspects of communal learning. After a detailed account of Wenger’s collective learning aspects, Cousin and Deepwell argue that Wenger’s characteristics of communal learning should help lead design for NLEs. They state that the focus should be on constructing NLEs to encourage learner participation, taking special care to consider the engagement elements of mutuality, competence, and continuity. Cousin and Deepwell also discuss other design aspects for NLEs, such as imagination (the ability to explore) and alignment (providing a balance between investigation and expectations). Cousin and Deepwell concluded their article with a list of implications that can facilitate networked learning. 

***Howard, N. R. (2019). Chasing resources: A mixed methods study of a professional learning opportunity. E-Learning and Digital Media, 16(6), 497–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042753019860617  

In this article, Howard used a mixed method research approach to find connections between Wenger’s definition of Community of Practice (CoP) and online Personal Learning Networks (PLN). Howard also suggested that online communities for educators can have several benefits for their professional development (PD). Howard relies on Wenger’s CoP definition and framework, restating that CoP’s principal idea is learning through participation and involves four major components: meaning, practice, community, and identity. Howard conducted research using Twitter as a PLN network to illustrate the components of CoP. In addition to Wenger’s CoP criteria, Howard’s PLN study also identifies four themes concerning CoP: beyond borders through meaning, encouragement, and practice, standing the gap with community, and chasing resources and identity. These themes illustrate similarities between traditional CoP and online PLNs but also identify several discrepancies. Howard notes that further research is needed regarding the resilience and long-term effects of PLNs. Howard’s research concludes that online PLNs have the potential to assist both new and veteran educators with their practice by providing self-directed, global communal learning opportunities while practicing key aspects of traditional CoP.

***Rolim, V., Ferreira, R., Lins, R. D., & Gǎsević, D. (2019). A network-based analytic approach to uncovering the relationship between social and cognitive presences in communities of inquiry. The Internet and Higher Education, 42, 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IHEDUC.2019.05.001

The theoretical framework described by Garrison et al, labelled community of inquiry (CoI), is a deeply researched social constructivist model, best used in blended and online learning platforms. The framework defines the learning experience through social, cognitive, and teaching presence consequently providing an opportunity for instructors to enhance the learning experience for students (2010). These “presences” highlight behaviour and engagement opportunities to reflect and amend customary education standards such as passive lecturing (Garrison, 2018). This study uses epistemic network analysis (ENA), a graph-based analysis to bring both quantitative and qualitative insights into the CoI framework. Benefits of using ENA include exploring the relationship between social and cognitive presences, measuring the impact of teaching interventions and looking at the progression of the interdependency between social and cognitive presence when applied to CoI model. This paper analyzes data collected from online asynchronous discussions. It offers feasible suggestions to enhance student learning outcomes including providing timely feedback, improved course design based on the opportunity to understand both quantitative and qualitative inputs granted by ENA, and furthermore, provides suggestions to optimize students’ experience in asynchronous learning environments within the structure of the CoI framework.

*Wenger-Trayner, E., & Wenger-Trayner, B. (2015). Communities of Practice: A brief introduction. https://wenger-trayner.com/introduction-to-communities-of-practice/#:~:text=Communities%20of%20practice%20are%20groups,better%20as%20they%20interact%20regularly

Wenger-Trayner’s purpose for writing this article is to provide a brief overview of the Community of Practice (CoP) learning theory and to illustrate examples of various communities that find CoP useful in learning and education. The article commences by defining CoP as a group of people who share an interest in a common topic and learn from each other by participating regularly. Wenger-Trayner then provides a list of three characteristics of CoP (domain, community, and practice), each with a brief description of its importance. Wenger-Trayner provides examples of how groups evolve their practice using CoP through various activities. They discuss the origin of CoP, initiating from learning theory and initially coined by researchers Lave and Wenger. Challenges of CoP are also noted, specifically for government and education. The article concludes by dispelling several CoP myths and provides a list of resources for further reading. Wenger-Trayner’s article relates CoP to learning and technology, specifically CoP’s ability to enable educators and learners to manage knowledge, create links between learning and performance, and be unlimited by formal systems. These characteristics of CoP illustrate a different approach to knowledge management that focuses on group learning and can prove beneficial to online communities.

Personality Theory

***Abe, J. A. A. (2020). Big five, linguistic styles, and successful online learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 45, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100724

This article deals with both the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality and linguistic styles. The FFM is divided into five dimensions: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and neuroticism. Linguistic styles are typically analyzed by processing writing samples with the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), a computerized text analysis program. From these findings, Pennebaker and colleagues created an algorithm for assessing individual differences in cognitive styles, called Analytic Thinking. Individuals who score high think logically, and those who score low think intuitively. The participants were recruited from six sections of fully online asynchronous undergraduate classes in personality psychology at a public comprehensive university. The assessment methods were the big five inventory, linguistic analysis and word count, quiz average, online discussions, and grade on final paper. This study showed that people who are talkative, sociable, and outgoing do not have an advantage over introverts in a fully online asynchronous learning environment. Students who have depressed mood or anxiety are not positively or negatively affected from a totally online and asynchronous course format. The results showed that conscientiousness, analytic thinking, and openness to experience are associated with successful online learning, the same as face-to-face learning.

***Bhagat, K., Wu, L., Yufeng & Chang, C. (2019). The impact of personality on student’s perception of online learning. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 35(4), 98-108. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.4162

In this article, the researchers examine the impact of personality traits on the perception of students toward online learning. The study is framed by personality theory. The writers claim that personality plays an essential role in students’ learning experiences because how a person thinks, feels and behaves influences how the person interacts with their environment. Thus, the writers explain the importance of personality theory to online course design to improve student success regarding grades and retention rates. Since there are many personality theories, the researchers focused their study on a widely accepted and applied model named the five-factor model of personality (FFM). The FFM model separates personality traits into extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and intellect/imagination. The researchers predicted measures of student engagement as; instructor characteristics (caring, helpful, and accommodating traits), social presence (developing a sense of community), instructional design (planning objectives, instructional strategies, evaluation and selecting media), and trust (believing in success). The researchers recommend using personality tests during enrolment so that online courses can be customized to guide instructors in selecting effective teaching methods. In addition, online courses should incorporate adaptive learning models to match learner personalities. In sum, personality theory can inform effective online course design to influence student learning experiences to support success. 

***Seyal, A., Siau, N., & Suhali, W. (2019). Evaluating Students’ Personality and Learning Styles in Higher Education: Pedagogical Considerations. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(7), 145-164. http://ijlter.net/index.php/ijlter/article /view/541/545

This article looks at students’ personality traits in relation to learning styles in institutions of higher learning (IHL) while highlighting specific pedagogical considerations regarding applying rewarding outcomes for student learning by leveraging personality theory. In the study presented, ninety surveys were collected and analyzed using quantitative and random sampling techniques. The correlation between dominant personality traits and learning style were studied using personality theory and learning styles. The results showed strong relationships between “openness and agreeableness” personality traits to several learning styles; however, the overall conclusion suggests that effective pedagogies are developed by knowing, understanding, and adapting teaching methods to students’ unique learning styles. The author articulates limitations to the study including non-response bias that can be improved upon by increasing the survey sample size as well as controlling for gender which may illuminate additional relationships. The main strengths of this study bring forward practical and clear recommendations for educators in IHL including professional development to gain knowledge around the variety of personality types and support educators in creating a balanced curriculum that aims to address a range of personalities. Lastly, the author suggests measuring outcomes using formative and summative assessments is expected to lead to more positive performance and increased productivity.

Adult Learning Theory

*Knowles, M. (1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED084368.

Knowles adopted the term andragogy to define an approach to adult learning. Knowles’ adult learning theory emerged in the mid-century when education theory was based on how children learn (pedagogy) and animal laboratory studies. Andragogy highlights how adults are motivated to learn: adult learners are independent with the capacity for self-direction; adult learners have life experience so experiential techniques can build on this experience; adults are goal-oriented and engage in learning with goals and interests with a pursuit for mastery; adult learners are intrinsically motivated and ready to seek knowledge; and adult learners are eager to apply what is learned, therefore oriented toward problem-solving and project learning. Adult learning theory can enhance learning with technology by creating authentic learning (about real-world issues) experiences and social learning (opportunities to learn from one another). Effective adult education strategies include inquiry-centered curricula (guided by students’ questions and curiosity) and problem-centered learning sequences rather than subject-centered units. In contrast to pedagogy, the adult educator’s role in transmitting knowledge is diminished. Educators act as role models, supporters, and facilitators. Adult learning theory encourages educators to connect learning to real-world issues and to learners’ experiences to motivate adults to learn.

*Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New directions for adult & continuing education, 1997(74), 5-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.7401 

This article aims to define and explain transformative learning (TL) and connect it to adult learning. Mezirow claims the goal of TL is to create independent, responsible thinking. Mezirow commences the article by defining TL as a process of effecting change in a person’s frame of reference (FOR). He states that FORs are experiences that define our lives. He then expands on FOR’s various components and dimensions (habits of mind and point of view (POV). Mezirow also states that controlling the environment is critical for learning and expands on several processes to help with this. Next, Mezirow discusses the importance of discourse, meaning evaluating evidence, information and different POVs to encourage learning. He then discusses four learning processes in relation to transformative learning, concluding with the notion that adult learning through the lens of transformation theory needs ideal conditions and mentions several methods that act as learning guidelines. The link between transformative learning and technology is in its premise: creating autonomous responsible thinking by questioning our biases and POV. Online communities can create places of discourse and allow for analysis and critical thinking incorporated in transformative learning. 

*Slagter van Tryon, P. J., & Bishop, M. J. (2009). Theoretical foundations for enhancing social connectedness in online learning environments. Distance Education, 30(3), 291–315.

The research study is framed by social learning theory. According to social learning theorists, learning occurs when students can construct ideas and meaning in interactive environments. Social learning theory supposes that learners develop networks of communication to combine their own experiences with multiple perspectives of others. In other words, peer learning plays a central role in the learning process. The authors suggest that in face-to-face environments, beneficial group social structure happens more seamlessly than in online learning environments. Therefore, the authors convey that attrition rates remain higher for online learning and those students report feelings of social disconnectedness. Social learning theory can inform online course design to help students make sense of the online social environment. To connect social learning theory with online course design and delivery, the researchers encourage online educators to design introductory activities that reveal participants’ personalities and characteristics. Additionally, educators can ease communications by facilitating the establishment of group norms and roles. Also, a stronger group bond and student engagement can be enhanced by frequent discussions. In summary, educators can facilitate the formation of social structures for learning through the design of social activities, establishing communication norms and providing opportunities for frequent discussions.