Authors: Kirsten May and Matt Klymson

Peer-reviewed literature is not a final, immutable conclusion. It provides answers based on current conditions. When Clark and Kozma debated the influence of media in 1994, Virtual Reality (VR) was an emerging educational technology (Pantelidis, 1993). Decades later, it continues to be promoted and debated as a transformative solution for learning.

Clark’s Hypothetical Response

Media articles and press releases touting the benefits of VR cannot reasonably be separated from the underlying commercial interests. For technology companies, this connection is obvious. For news sources, Proteus Labs (2025) illustrates how commercial partnerships can emphasize technological capabilities and potential benefits without independently evaluating their educational effects. Neither necessarily provides the controlled evidence needed to establish that VR itself produces improved learning.

Claims of use-case benefits marginalize the characteristics and quality of the underlying learning methods. Better learning design yields better learning outcomes, regardless of the media. Without a controlled comparison, claims of improvement are unsubstantiated. 

Kozma’s Hypothetical Response

We have a responsibility not only to conduct research and draw conclusions based on current conditions, but also to devote equal attention to the follow-up questions and future research topics that arise. The VR capabilities described by Tudor et al. (2022) support Kozma’s (1994) argument that media and learning methods interact, particularly where VR enables learners to experience inaccessible environments, visualize otherwise invisible processes, and engage with multiple perspectives in ways that conventional instructional media may not readily permit.

The very issue of cost-effectiveness central to Clark’s arguments is upended by VR’s ability to make learning portable across locations and languages, while addressing physical safety and the needs of differently abled learners (Proteus Labs, 2025).

Conclusion

VR is a radically different paradigm from older, traditional media in that it can engage multiple sensory pathways simultaneously, transcending previous debates about media versus method.


References

Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299088

Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02299087

Pantelidis, V. S. (1993). Virtual reality in the classroom. Educational Technology, 33(4), 23–27. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ462844

Proteus Labs. (2025, June 17). Montreal-based Proteus Labs partners with Avantis Education to bring immersive virtual science labs to classrooms worldwide. Canada NewsWire. https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/montreal-based-proteus-labs-partners-with-avantis-education-to-bring-immersive-virtual-science-labs-to-classrooms-worldwide-817888981.html

Tudor, A.-D., & colleagues. (2022). Virtual reality can support and enhance outdoor environmental education. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/virtual-reality-can-support-and-enhance-outdoor-environmental-education-183579