A critique of instructional design models.
The objective of this paper is to critically examine two instructional design models used for the creation of digital learning environments. An analysis of their origins, strengths/weaknesses and their application in digital learning environments will be provided. The chosen models for this purpose are the PIE and ADDIE models.
The PIE Model
In 1996, Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Rusell authored together a book for educators titled Instructional Technology for Teaching and Learning where they first introduced the concept of the Instructional Design (ID) model known as the PIE Model. The name of this model comes from the identification of three main phases: Planning, Implementing and Evaluating (PIE). It focuses “on classroom instruction created and delivered by the same individual or small group with an emphasis on using media and technology to assist them” (Gustafson & Branch, p.44). The PIE model is a classroom-oriented model that was primarily designed to shift the classroom focus from teacher-centered instruction to student-centered instruction with an emphasis of implementing technology in each of its phases. In this model, each of these phases is essential to developing an effective instructional plan.
The Planning phase of the PIE model is to identify learning objectives and to prepare the lesson (or course). It includes gathering information and making decisions about what should be included in each lesson. Instructors need to review the resources and analyze the environment by gathering information about the learners’ prior knowledge of the lesson. Instructors also need to know what students are to learn, and how, why and when it would be best accomplished (Dousay, 2017). By identifying learning objectives, analyzing the learner and the content, the instructional designer can create an outline of the learning experience that will lead to the desired learning outcome. During this stage, there is also an emphasis in place on how technology can be used to motivate students to learn and to make the planning and instruction more efficient.
Implementing is the second phase of PIE; it is the part of the lesson where instruction is actually occurring. The focus is on applying the instructional plan using instructional materials, technology and media. This phase “addresses various forms of media and methods with a particular focus on how the computer can be incorporated into lessons” (Gustafson & Branch, p.46). During the implementation phase, students experience the “where, when and how” of learning, while instructors monitor and manage a classroom of diverse learners. Instructors need to plan for it, they need to know how to maintain classroom control, how to keep learners engaged and motivated, and how technology can be used to increase the impact of instruction.
Evaluating is the third and final phase of the PIE model. The focus of this phase is on evaluating student learning and assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of the lesson. “Evaluation includes both learner performance and how the data can be used to continuously improve their own and student performance” (Gustafson & Branch, p.46). During this phase, teachers reflect on the instructional plan to compare its outcome to the initial desired goal. Instructors reflect on the quality and quantity of learning compared to their initial expectations. They also take the time to analyze the issues they encountered in each phase of the instructional design process and determine a way to improve it for future use.
One strength of the PIE model is the focus on teacher reflection during the evaluation phase. Teachers not only measure the effectiveness of the lesson but also reflect throughout each phase of the instructional design process on what was successful and what needs improvement. Another strength of this model is its focus on integrating educational technology in all phases of the design process. “PIE combines the analyzing, designing, and developing phases into a singular focus area” (Dousay, 2017).
One disadvantage of PIE is that there are only three phases for this design model leaving a lot of room for interpretation in between phases for those planning the instruction and working on the design process. Because this model is mainly focused for a classroom-oriented environment, one weakness is the limited amount of revision and tryout time since the lesson is actually tested the same day of its implementation.
The ADDIE Model
ADDIE is a design model that has its origins in military training and distance education (Bates, 2015). It is one of the most popular models that provides learning designers a strong foundation and basic structure for designing training material for any learning environment. This ID model “has been almost a standard for professionally developed, high quality distance education programs, whether print-based or online” (Bates, 2015). Gustafson and Branch (2002) also identify ADDIE as a conceptual framework for ID models. ADDIE is a model widely known and utilized by instructional designers that consists of five sequential stages or phases:
Analysis. During this phase, the instructional problem is identified, instructional designers gather information about the audience, their training needs and their learning goals to which the instruction will be targeted to. In this phase, instructional designers also look at what resources are required and available.
Design. In this phase the learning goals are transformed into clear learning objectives. Some of the activities created during this stage include storyboards, rough drafts and prototypes of printed and digital media are created as well.
Development. It is when creation of the content and learning materials happen. Videos and voiceovers are recorded and edited. Designers and developers decide whether to develop materials in-house or to outsource them (Bates, 2015).
Implementation. It is when the actual delivery of instruction occurs. Learners are ready to take the course and they have access to the materials created for that purpose.
Evaluation. During this phase, data is collected and reviewed with the objective to find out if the initial instructional problem that was identified during the Analysis phase has been resolved and if the learning goals and objectives were accomplished.
One advantage of the ADDIE model is that it is a generic and simple model that can be applied to create any type of learning experience for any audience in any instructional situation. One strength of ADDIE is that it has been used as the foundation for other ID models and it is considered a proven method for designing effective training programs.
Although ADDIE and PIE are similar in some of their phases, PIE has “general rules that you can adapt to fit each situation, rather than a rigid procedure that you must follow in the same way every time” (Newby et al, p. 81) while ADDIE, due to its sequential nature, it is considered by some designers to be too linear, too detailed and inflexible. “While no single model is useful for all settings and all purposes, it is important to identify the intended focus of an ID model and the context for which it is intended” (Gustafson & Branch, p.31).
References
Bates, T. (2015). Chapter 4.3 The ADDIE Model. Teaching in a Digital Age: Guidelines for designing, teaching and learning.
Dousay. T.A. (2017). Chapter 22. Instructional Design Models. In R. West (Ed.), Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology (1st ed).
Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Fourth Edition.
Newby, T. J., Stepich, D., Lehman, J., & Russell, J. D. (1996). Instructional technology for teaching and learning: Designing, integrating computers, and using media. Merrill/Prentice-Hall.